Origins Of The Kadazan People

Origins Of The Kadazan People The Kadazans are an ethnic group indigenous to the state of Sabah in Malaysia. They are found mainly at Penampang on the west coast of Sabah the surrounding locales,and various locations in the interior. Due to similarities in culture and language with the Dusun ethnic group, and also because of other political initiatives a new unified term called Kadazan dusun was created. Collectively, they form the largest ethnic group in Sabah. While Kadazan was an official designation for this ethnic group it is widely believed that the term itself was a political derivative that came into existence in the late 1950s to early 1960s. No proper historical record exists pertaining to the origins of the term or its originator. However, an article written by Richard Tunggolou on this matter may shed some light. According to Tunggolou, most of the explanations of the meanings and origins of the word Kadazan assumed that the word was of recent origin, specifically in the late 1950s and early 1960s. He says that some people have theorized that the term originates from the word kakadazan (towns) or kedai (shops), and from the claim that Kadazan politicians such as the late Datuk Peter J. Mojuntin coined the term. However, there is evidence that the term has been used long before the 1950s. Owen Rutter, in his book, The Pagans Of North Borneo, published in 1929, wrote: The Dusun usually describes himself generically as a tulun tindal (landsman) or on the West Coast particularly at Papar, as a Kadazan. (page 31). Rutter worked in Sabah for five years as District Officer in all five residencies and left Sabah with the onset of the First World War. This means that he started working in Sabah from 1910 and left Sabah in 1914. We can therefore safely say that the word Kadazan was already in existence before any towns or shops were built in the Penampang district and that Kadazan politicians did not invent the word in the late fifties and early sixties. The Bobolians or the Bobohizans of Borneo was interviewed to seek better picture of the true meaning of the term Kadazan, a Lotud Bobolian was asked what is the meaning of Kadazan or kadayan? Kadazan means the people of the land. The Bobohizan from P enampang was also interviewed seeking the real meaning of Kadazan .The Bobohizan Dousia Moujing confirmed that the Kadazan has always been used to describe the real people of the land Kadazan means the people of the land. That confirmed what Rutter had described about the existence of term Kadazan. Thus the word Kadazan actually not derived from the word kedai (meaning shops in Malay). Over a hundred years, the people of Kadazans were ruled by the Brunei Sultanate; the Kadazan or Kadayan in Lotud, Marangang, Liwan were being addressed by the Sultanate as being the Orang Dusun which means the People of the Orchard Because in Malay, Dusun means Orchard Farm. Thus administratively the Kadazans are called Orang Dusun by the Sultanate (Tax-Collector) but in reality the people that was called Orang Dusun are in fact Kadazan. An account of this fact was written by the first census made by the North Borneo Company in Sabah, 1881. Administratively all Kadazans are called Dusun as their ethni c identity. Only through the establishment of KCA (Kadazan Cultural Association) in 1960, this terminology was corrected and replaced into Kadazan. When Sabah formed Malaysia together with Sarawak, Singapore and the Peninsular Malaysia in 1963, under the newly form nation of Malaysia, administratively all Orang Dusun born after the Malaysia formation is called Kadazan as their ethnic origin. There were no conflict with regards to Kadazan as the identity of the Orang Dusun between 1963 to 1984. But in 1985 through the KDCA (formally called KCA) the Dusun was once again being introduced after much pressures received from the various parties with one reason to divide the Kadazan and the Orang Dusun once again. As the division has been established and successful, the fall of the ruling government (PBS) was accomplished. PBS through the KCA then, finally coined in the new term to represent the Orang Dusun and Kadazan as Kadazandusun. Press released (Sabah Times and Daily Express) by various parties argued that it should not be Kadazandusun but Dusunkadazan! Leaders in Singapore and the Peninsular Malaysia until today acknowledges the people as Kadazan and not Dusun. The ex- Prime Minister of Singapore addressed the ethnic group in Sabah as the Kadazans, and many leaders of Malaysia today. It was said that the Kadazan/Dusun people originated from a place called Nunuk Ragang wh ich is roughly located at Tampias, where three rivers, Liwagu, Takashaw, and Gelibang meet to the east of Ranau and Tambunan. Nunuk is a Dusun word for Bayan Tree, Ragang comes from the word Aragang which means red. Nunuk look like giant that provide good natural shelters. Its tree top was estimated to be able to shelter under seven Kadazan/Dusun huts (a hut measure 12 by 20 feet). C:UsersUserDesktopNunukRagang (1).jpg A replica of Nunuk Ragang in Ranau Culture Characteristic Kadazan culture is heavily influenced by the farming of rice, culminating in various delicacies and alcoholic drinks prepared through differing home-brewed fermentation processes. Toomis and linutau are the main rice wine variants served and consumed in Kadazan populated areas, and are a staple of Kadazan social gatherings and ceremonies. Religion The Kadazandusun were traditionally animists but have been influenced by both Christianity and Islam. Many of those that the government counts as Christians come from a church tradition where any child that is born into a family that calls itself Christian is also considered to be Christian. Those holding to traditional religion today believe in a spirit world that is especially important in the cycle of rice cultivation as well as major events in the cycle of life. Although believing in a supreme being who created everything, they also attribute spirits to many things in nature such as birds, animals, and plants. The rice spirit in particular figures prominently in their beliefs and practices. Some of the Kadazandusun people groups are noted for their use of priestesses (bobohizan) for controlling the spirits. The majority of the Kadazans are Christians, mainly Roman Catholics and some Protestants. Islam is also practiced by a growing minority.The influence of the Spanish missionaries from the Philippines resulted in Christianity in its Roman Catholic form rising to prominence amongst Kadazans. A minority of them are protestants due to later British influence during the 20th century. Before the missionaries came into scene animism was the predominant religion. The Kadazan belief system centers around the spirit or entity called Kinorohingan. It revolved around the belief that spirits ruled over the planting and harvesting of rice a profession that had been practiced for generations. Special rituals would be performed before and after each harvest by a tribal priestess known as a bobohizan. C:UsersUserDesktopbobohizan.jpg Bobohizan Festival The most important festival of the Kadazans is the Kaamatan or harvest festival, where the spirit of the paddy is honoured after a years harvest. The Kaamatan festival is an annual event in the cultural life of the Kadazandusuns of Sabah since time immemorial. In its deepest sense Kaamatan festival is a manifestation of Creator and Creation relationship, as well as Inter-Creations relationship. It embodies the principal acts of invocation of divinities, appeasing purification and restoration re-union of benevolent spirits, and thanksgiving to the Source of All. It is part of a complex wholesome Momolian religious system centered on the paddy rites of passage and the life cycle of Bambarayon the in dwelling spirit of paddy. C:UsersUserDesktoppesta.jpg Harvest festival Appeasing is done in respect of Bambarayon, Deities, Divinities and Spirits, who may have been hurt by human wrongful acts. Purification is performed in respect of human and spiritual needs for forgiveness followed by resolutions to make themselves worthy of the gifts of life from God. Restoration in necessary to ensure the health and well being of SUNIL, mankind and other spiritual beings. Reunion is realised in respect of human needs to be integrated in body mind and spirit within the concept of the seven-in-one divinity in humanity, as well as re-union of Bambarayon with human Sunduan. Finally Thanksgiving is observed as befitting for all creations to express their gratitude and appreciation for the gifts of life (through Huminodun) and all life supportive system on earth that their Creator lovingly and generously gave them. This takes place in May and the two last days of the month are public holidays throughout Sabah. During the celebration the most celebrated event is the crowning of the unduk ngadau or harvest queen, where native Kadazandusuns girls throughout the state compete for the coveted crown. The beauty pageant is held to commemorate the spirit of Huminodon, a mythological character of unparalleled beauty said to have given her life in exchange for a bountiful harvest for her community. In marriages, marriage customs amongst the Kadazans vary a little from one district to another but in general are the same. The most important thing about Kadazan marriage customs is the role of the parents of both sides for it is they who make the choice and all the arrangements for the joining together of their children. Usually the children abide by their parents decision. The business of making the engagement is done when the boy is only twelve years old and the girl eleven The Kadazans call this miatod. The process begins with the boy who is to be engaged paying a formal visit to the girls house accompanied by some relatives and close friends. The visit is made at a time which has been agreed upon beforehand. In the girls house everybody is ready waiting with members of the family and close friends as well. Whilst waiting for the arrival of the boys party, the girl is told to make seven rice-balls as a special dish for her future husband. When she has done this, she is hastily sent to the house of one of her relations, which is never, however far from her own. As soon as the boy arrives he is invited to enter and is seated on a mat specially woven for occasions such as this, and which is called lawangan by the Kadazans. In the meanwhile the question of the size of the dowry is discussed by the elders from both parties. Usually a Kadazan dowry consists of a large gong, a small gong a, (small) cannon, a buffalo, some bronze, land, and so forth. The agreement is made to become effective on the day of the actual wedding. Finally a meal consisting of rice and buffalo meat, pork, chicken and similar dishes, washed down with drinks like ricewine and the juice of the coconut blossom is consumed to the accompaniment of the beat of gongs. This is when the special rice which has been prepared for the boy by his bride-to-be is fed to him by an old lady from the girls side. This is done in front of all present. After this everything is over and the guests depart, except for the bridegroom-to-be and some of his close friends who stay behind in the girls house. Now the girl returns from her relations house in order to meet her future husband and in order to serve him with more food and drink. That night the boy and his friends sleep in a room by themselves in the girls house. They will return home the following morning. Three days later the girl returns the visit. The same procedures are followed as with the boys visit to the girls house except that the boy does not have to move out of his house while his fiancee and her friends are there. The next day the girl is sent back to her own house by her fiancee along with other members of her family. While they are waiting for their coming of age the engaged couple stay with their own parents. However, the boy is obliged to help in his future mother-in-laws house doing such chores as collecting the firewood ploughing the soil and putting up temporary sheds and the like. Similarly the girl must help her future mother-in-law to plant the rice, cook and so on. The boy may visit the girls house whenever he likes on his own. The girl may also do likewise on condition that she is accompanied by her mother, an aunt or an elder sister. If the boy has an elder sister, he may invite his fiancee to stay a night or two in his house. At the same time if either one of them breaks the rules a penalty will be exacted. When the parents think that the time has come for their children to be married usually around sixteen or seventeen years of age the date for the wedding is fixed by mutual agreement. At last the betrothal ceremony can take place. A man who is fairly advanced in years from the bridegrooms side is chosen to carry out the betrothal rites by reading a short couplet set to a Kadazan melody. Then a huge feast is held at which several buffaloes ,pigs and chickens as well as a number of jars of rice-wine and bamboo stems of coconut blossom juice are consumed. Language Of The Kadazan People Rationally Kadazan language has existed since their ancestors, at first use of the native languages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹is a branch of every human interaction, deliver and receive information. In particular, the spread of such dialects are starting from a small community groups. These groups communicate and develop an understanding of identity through their language. Eventually it will grow through the diffusion and increase the quantity of these groups. Originally the Kadazan community groups are in small amount, over time it evolved into large clusters. Kadazan tribe has its own language. Kadazan tribes and Dusun tribes are actually a different tribe, but were of the same family. Language of both these tribes nearly the same, distinguished only by minor differences in spelling and pronunciation. For example, home as walai in Dusun and hamin in Kadazan. Many other words that differ only in spelling such as two the duo in Dusun and duvo in Kadazan, and nine referred to siam in Dusun, and sizam in Kadazan. However, there is the same word as a the iso in both languages and six is onom. Music and Dance The Kadazans have also developed their own unique dance and music. Sumazau is the name of the dance between a male and female performed by couples as well as groups of couples which is usually accompanied by a symphony of handcrafted bronze gongs that are individually called tagung. Sumazau and Tagung usually played during festive occasions and feasts especially the wedding feast. The Sumazau Dance Tagung team The Kadazan have a musical heritage consisting of various types of tagung ensembles which is composed of large hanging suspended or held bossed or knobbed gongs which act as drone without any accompanying melodic instrument. They also use kulintangan ensembles with an horizontal type melodic instrument. Agungs also play a major role in agung orchestras ensembles composed of large hanging suspended or held knobbed gongs which act as drones without any accompanying melodic instrument like a kulintang. Such orchestras are prevalent among Mindanao Lumad groups (Bagobo, Bilaan, Bukidon, Hanunoo, Magsaka, Manabo, Mangyan, Palawan, Subanun, Tboli, Tagakaolu, Tagbanwa and the Tiruray), regions in Kalimantan and Indonesia (Iban, Modang, Murut) and Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia (Bidayuh, Iban, Kadazan-Dusan, Kajan, Kayan), places where agung orchestras take precedence over kulintang like orchestras. The composition and tuning of these orchestras vary widely from one group to another. For instance, the Hanunoo of Mindoro have a small agung ensemble consisting of only two light gongs played by two musicians on the floor in a simple duple rhythm while the Manobo have an ensemble (called an ahong) consisting of 10 small agungs hung vertically on a triangular frame. It includes three musicians: on e standing up, playing the melody, and the rest sitting. The agong is divided by purpose with the higher-pitched gongs (kaantuhan) carrying the melody three to four lower-pitched gongs (gandingan) playing melodic ostinato figures and the lowest pitched gong (bandil) setting the tempo. The Kadazan-Dusun, located on the western coast of Sabah refer to their agung ensemble as a tawag or bandil, which consists of six to seven large gongs in shoreline groups and 7 to 8 large gongs for those in interior valleys. In southwestern Sarawak, Bidayuh agung ensembles consist of nine large gongs divided into four groups (taway, puum, bandil, and sanang), while among the Iban of Sawarak, Brunei, Kalimantan, agung ensembles are smaller in comparison. Such ensembles can either perform alone or with one or two drums played with the hands or wooden sticks, as accompaniment. They play either homophonically or in an interlocking fashion with the gongs. These agung orchestras often perform at many types of social events, including agriculture rituals, weddings, victory celebrations, curing rites rituals for the dead, entertainment for visitors and other community rituals. The Agung. the left gong is the pangandungan, used for basic beats while the right gong is the panentekan, which complements the pangandungan. Kulintang is a modern term for an ancient instrumental form of music composed on a row of small, horizontally laid gongs that function melodically, accompanied by larger, suspended gongs and drums. As part of the larger gong chime culture of Southeast Asia, kulintang music ensembles have been playing for many centuries in regions of the Eastern Malay Archipelago the Southern Philippines, Eastern Indonesia, Eastern Malaysia, Brunei and Timur, although this article has a focus on the Philippine Kulintang traditions of the Maranao and Maguindanao peoples in particular. Kulintang evolved from a simple native signaling tradition and developed into its present form with the incorporation of knobbed gongs from Sunda.Its importance stems from its association with the indigenous cultures that inhabited these islands prior to the influences of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity or the West making Kulintang the most developed tradition of Southeast Asian archaic gong-chime ensembles. Technically, kulintang is the Maguindanao Ternate and Timor term for the idiophone of metal gong kettles which are laid horizontally upon a rack to create an entire kulintang set. It is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters. Due to its use across a wide variety groups and languages the kulintang is also called kolintang by the Maranao and those in Sulawesi and kulintangan or gulintangan by those in Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago and totobuang by those in central Maluku. By the twentieth century, the term kulintang had also come to denote an entire Maguindanao ensemble of five to six instruments. Traditionally the Maguindanao term for the entire ensemble is basalen or palabunibunyan, the latter term meaning an ensemble of loud instruments or music-making or in this case music-making using a kulintang. Kulintang The instrument called the kulintang (or its other derivative terms) consist of a row/set of 5 to 9 graduated pot gongs, horizontally laid upon a frame arranged in order of pitch with the lowest gong found on the players left. The gongs are laid in the instrument face side up atop two cords/strings running parallel to the entire length of the frame with bamboo/wooden sticks/bars resting perpendicular across the frame creating an entire kulintang set called a pasangan. The gongs could weigh roughly from two pounds to three and 1/8 pounds and have dimensions from 6-10 inches for their diameters and 3-5 inches for their height. Traditionally they are made from bronze but due to the shortage of bronze after World War II and the subsequent use of scrap metal brass gongs with shorter decaying tones have become commonplace. The kulintang frame known as an antangan by the Maguindanao (means to arrange) and langkonga by the Maranao could have designs that could be particularly crude made from only bamboo/wooden poles or highly decorated rich with artistic designs like the traditional okil/okir motifs or arabesque designs. It is considered taboo to step or cross over the antangan while the kulintang gongs are placed on it. The kulintang is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters. When playing the kulintang, the Maguindanao and Maranao would always sit on chairs while for the Tausug/Suluk and other groups that who play the kulintangan, they would commonly sit on the floor. Modern techniques include twirling the beaters, juggling them in midair, changing the arrangement of the gongs either before or while playing, crossings hands during play or adding very rapid fire strokes all in an effort to show off a players grace and virtuosity. The Kulintang The sompoton is another musical instrument. A ceremonial ring of cloth sash is worn by both male and female. The Sumazau and gong accompaniment is typically performed during joyous ceremonies and occasions, the most common of which being wedding feasts. The sompoton is a mouth organ which is prevalent among the Kadazandusun and Murut community. This fascinating instrument that originates from the district of Tambunan is constructed from a dried gourd and eight bamboo pipes which are arranged in a double-layered raft. A small lamella of polod palm (like a tiny jaw harp) is inserted near the base inside each sounding pipe to create a sweet harmonious sound. The pipes are fitted into a hole on one side of the gourd, sealed with bees wax and bound with thin strands of rattan. To create the perfect melody, musicians will have to manipulate the instrument by covering and uncovering the openings of three of the shortest pipes with the right hand and three small holes near the front and back pipes with the left hand. The sompoton can be played as a solo instrument for personal entertainment or in an ensemble to accompany a group of dancers. The sompoton has a gourd wind chamber from which extend 8 pipes arranged in two rows. There are bamboo reeds in seven of these pipes only, and three of these pipes do not have sound holes and are played by closing and opening the tops of the pipes with fingers of the right hand. The sumpoton can be played with the pipes pointing up, as is done with smaller instruments or with the pipes pointing either sideways or down with larger instruments. The instruments range in size from 6 inches to 3 feet in length, with the average size of just over 1 foot. Music featured in the folk traditions of this very interesting and unique. The tools and traditional sounds are abundant in Kadazandusun and it has the potential to be inherited by the younger generation. Among other musical instruments popular tradition is gong, Sompoton, Kulintangan, togunggu or togunggak, bungkau, pumpuak, sundatang, distilled, turali, tongkungon and others. Birth and Naming Ceremonies When a woman gives birth to a child in a house, a leaf known as wongkong is immediately tied over the door. This serves to give notice that a birth has taken place and that only those who live nearby may call. During her period of pregnancy until several days after delivery, the mother is completely in the hands of the midwife. The midwife is usually an elderly woman who is held in high esteem amongst the villagers. Apart from looking after the delivery of the child, the midwife is also responsible for all the medicines, which consist of the roots of trees, herbs, and so on. The midwife advises the mother on the relevant taboos and massages her both before and after childbirth. The name of the newborn babe is chosen by its grandparents. If the child was born in the house of the mother-in-law, they will have this responsibility; if in the house of the mothers own parents, they will choose what they consider to be an appropriate name. The names chosen are taken from these ancestors and are based on the world around them such as the names of trees, animals, and so on. Kadazan boys take names like Gimbang, Kunul, Kerupang, Galumau,Gantuong, Empurut, Ampingan, Sangan and so forth: typical, girls names are Semitah, Rangkumas, Ansayu, Baimin, Salud, Amin, Nani and Mainah. When the newborn child is about a month old, the shaving ceremony takes place. Goats, pigs and chickens are always slaughtered for this occasion. There are also jars of rice-wine and dozens of bamboo-stems of coconut blossom juice for those with means, and whatever they can afford for the less well-off. Beliefs about Illness According to Kadazan belief, illness is caused by supernatural beings such as ghosts and devils which dwell in the virgin jungle, in fig-trees and in large boulders. Besides this, the Kadazans also believe that some people (called stridden) have the power to cause illness in others whom they do not like. When someone falls ill in the house, his family will call for a medicine-man who in the case of Sabah is not a man at all, but a woman. This woman not only casts spells and explains the necessary taboos to be followed but also provides medicines appropriate to the sickness from which the patient is suffering. These medicines include, inter alia, the tail and skin of a python, the tail and fat of an ant-eater, cockroaches, bees, rats, rattan roots, nibung-palm roots, betelnut roots, langsat (a fruit) skin and wild bananas. The medicine-woman brings a chicken, a pig and some yellow rice to a fig-tree or a large boulder which she believes to be the abode of a resident spirit. All these things are provided by the family of the sick person. At the boulder or beneath the fig-tree the woman softly chants her spells in the language of the spirits. This done, she will put the yellow rice in a bamboo stem, to which is added the chicken and pigs blood which she has just slaughtered, as well as their hearts and lungs. The bamboo stem is then placed on the boulder or below the tree in the ordained manner to the accompaniment of certain words. The medicine-woman then returns home without looking back once. The slaughtered pig and chicken are left where they are for the time being so that the resident spirits can cast their spells over them the spells will be absorbed into the carcasses of the dead animals. After about half an hour the carcasses will be brought back to the sick mans house. The slaughtered chicken is smeared all over the body of the patient, followed by the pig which is held by two men. Then the pig is suspended between two poles outside the house and roasted over a fire of bamboo. (No other wood may be used for this purpose:) Whilst the roasting is going on, no one is allowed to utter coarse speech, for to do so according to the general belief would prevent the sick man from ever recovering because the spells of the spirits would have been rendered inoperative. Should someone reveal an easy heart by laughter in the sick mans house, the person concerned has to pay a customary fine of one chicken. If untoward remarks are made about the fat running off the roasting pig it may not be eaten. The methods described above for the treatment of the sick applies to those who have been crossed by a ghost or a spirit. Funerals When a death occurs in a village everyone is informed. A taboo which must be observed is that no one must do any kind of work on the day of the funeral above all the work of planting rice. It is believed that any work done on such an occasion can only bring misfortune engendered by the fate of the deceased. However, this taboo does not apply should the deceased die far from his own village. First of all the body is washed and then dressed in fine clothes and sprinkled with rose-water. Sometimes, if the deceased was a cigarette or cheroot smoker, a cigarette or cheroot is placed in his mouth. The body is kept in the house from three to seven days before it is buried. While the body is in the house, all the occupants must keep awake. Whoever falls off to sleep will be doused with water and cannot take offence. The purpose of keeping awake is to watch out for the devil or genie which in the guise of a large bird will try to fly away with the body. Should the bird come, the day will become overcast and gloomy and there will be thunder and lightning, which will give the creature its chance to dash into the house and look for the body. This bird is known as the pendaatan bird. In order to avoid the birds onslaught, cloth is hung around the body. The bird is frightened off by the cloth which it mistakes for human beings. There should be an atmosphere of complete calm and silence in the house there should be no idle chatter or angry words. In this quietness solace is sought by the slow beating of gongs or drums, the sound of which the Kadazans refer to as Surabaya. These gongs or drums may only be beaten three times a day that is when the sun sets at midnight and as the sun rises the following morning. The greatest care is taken to prevent a cat from jumping over the outstretched corpse for the Kadazans believe that if this happens the dead man will be transformed into a dangerous and terrifying giant. No coffin or burial jar is used for those with neither rank nor wealth. They are carried to the burial ground wrapped up in cloth and tied to a pole which can be easily lifted. When the body is ready, it is carried in procession to the grave to the accompaniment of gongs and drums, firecrackers and gunfire. On arrival, a spell is cast over the body by an elderly man specially chosen to wait by the open grave. The grave itself is swept with green betelnut leaves so as to prevent the spirits of those who have come along being left behind there. The body is then lowered into the grave while a sprig from a banyan tree is taken and stuck over its navel. After this has been done, the grave is filled in. The purpose of the banyan sprig is to ascertain whether the deceased still thinks of his wife and children. If he does, the sprig will sprout a shoot; if no shoot appears, this means that he has forgotten all about those he has left behind. A small hut with an attap or zinc roof and with beautiful designs carved on its plank walls is erected over the grave. A shirt, a clean metal cigar/cigarette box, and some betelnut quids cigarettes and similar items are placed in the middle of the hut. The family of the deceased will send food to the hut every afternoon for seven days, because it is believed that during this period the soul of the dead man has not yet left the body and so still requires food from its living relatives. No one is allowed to disturb these things. Anyone found doing so will be fined a chicken or five dollars. The bodies of well to do Kadazans are placed in large burial jars which are firmly closed before they are buried with the body inside. Then another very expensive jar is placed above the grave. In some places the burial jar and its contents are not taken straight away to the burial place but are kept in the house itself or in a special hut erected nearby so that the family can mourn there whilst waiting for other relatives who live far off to arrive. Then only is the jar buried. After three days have passed since the burial, a feast is held at night. On this occasion members of the deceaseds family let fall three drops of candle wax through the cracks in the floor of the house onto the ground below.

International Relations Relating to Humanitarian Intervention Essay

In the following essay I will discuss aspects of international relations relating to humanitarian intervention and how they affect a nation’s responsibilities in the international arena. I will be drawing parallels to historical examples of intervention and to recent world events. I will inspect the classical realist notion of non-intervention and sovereignty and another newer line of thought, more adapted to the modern system. What I hope to bring forth in this paper is a clearer understanding of the situation and the responsibilities of the actors in current international relations in regard to humanitarian rights and intervention. Today the world stands more connected than ever before in human history. Nations form economic empires. Lines of trade run intertwined. Influence and interests span the globe. Power is global. With this brave new world come new responsibilities. No longer, can state sovereignty, force rigid impenetrable boundaries between states and command sole responsibility for their citizens. But still national sovereignty in classical international law is untouchable. With the philosophical roots of international relations established with the treaty of Westphalia 1648 (Plant 1995: 190) According to it all sovereign rulers have absolute authority within their nations and no state has the right to intervene in the domestic matters of other sovereign states. This idea has been the very building block of modern international relations since 1945 and the establishment of the UN. The UN Charter clearly prohibits the use of force in international relations to threaten the â€Å"territorial integrity or political independence of any state â€Å"(United Nations 1945: Chapter 1 Article 2.4). This idea is so concrete in i... ...tract=462523 [Accessed 15 March 2011] Plant, R. 1995 ‘Rights Rules and world Order’ pp 190-218 in Desai, M and Redfern, P. (eds.) Global Governance: Ethics and Economics of the World Order, London: Continuum Publishing Slater, J and Nardin, T. 1986 ‘Nonintervention and Human Rights.’ The Journal of Politics, 48(1):86-96 Stacy, H. 2007 ‘Humanitarian Intervention and Relational Sovereignty,’ pp 89-104 in Lee, Steven P. (Ed.) Intervention, Terrorism, and Torture: Contemporary Challenges to Just War Theory, New York: Springer Thomas, C . 1994 ‘Human Rights and Intervention: A Case for Caution.’ Irish Studies in International Affairs, 5:15-28. United Nations, 2011. Charter of the United Nations 194,. [Online] Available at; [Accessed 09 March 2011]. Walzer, M. 1977 Just and Unjust Wars, New York: Basic Books

Natural Language Essay

Natural language and Standard English can differ largely for obvious reasons. I grew up in a small town with a population of just 2,000 people. Most of the members of this small community were farmers and/or small business owners. For the most part, not many residents of this town have college degrees or an education past a high school diploma. Many would consider this part of the country â€Å"rednecks†. Though not necessarily from the south, we are Midwesterners and though Kansas City is close, my hometown is about an hour northeast. I grew up in more of rural/suburban community, much different than Kansas City which has become a very urban environment. I have had a lot of people have say I have a â€Å"twang† to my accent. I don’t necessarily hear it in my own voice, but when I visit home, I do recognize it in others, primarily when walking through the local grocery store or at the filling station. Through education and being well traveled (I was a flight attendant for 4 years), I think I have changed the way I talk. This past holiday, I went back and visited my home town. I did notice a lot of improper grammar being used and letters left off of the ending of words. It became somewhat irritating to me to hear my relatives and old friends talk so unintelligently. Hearing my sister say, â€Å"I ain’t got no wrappin’ paper† or my mom tell my dad she’s â€Å"got to go to the Wal-Marts to get some things† really just made my skin crawl. I’m sure that at some point in time, I likely, spoke the same and thought nothing about it and I do have to admit that there are times I have caught myself inserting the work â€Å"like† 20 times more than needed. Those are the simple examples of natural language; I have since learned and have changed my manner of speaking due to my new everyday environment. Standard English is far different from this; it can’t be learned by simply being around other people, but instead it must be taught exclusively. Words, phrases, and the way humans speak to one another initiates through our first caregivers and the people we are raised around.

The 10 Best John Grisham Books of 2019

Gang Violence Essay - 996 Words

Gang Violence Gangs are becoming a growing problem in American society. More young people are turning to gangs to solve problems in their lives. When youths join gangs they drop social activities with family, friends and school. Members fall behind their classmates in school and do not try. A study shows that less than 1% of gang bangers is literate1. Gangs destroy teenager lives and destroy their chances for a good education and happy life. Gangs are now a haven for rats. Teenagers are joining gangs every day. They join gangs for many reasons. A former gang member known as G-Ball was very young when he joined a his gang. He and a friend would play a game. They would pose as gang members to be cool. Then police†¦show more content†¦A school in Baytown, Texas has banned its students from wearing the following gang clothing -Solid red or black shirt with pants or skirt -Solid red or white shirt over a black shirt -Red and black flannel shirt or jacket -Blue and black flannel shirt or jacket -Clothing with Chicago Bulls, White Sox, Los Angles Raiders, Kings, University of Nevada-Las Vegas, or University of Miami Logos Everyone believes these types of clothes are worn by gang members. But what if they start wearing 3-piece suits or Mickey Mouse T-shirts? When will it end. Richard Sallivan, 40.3 Many gangs use hand signs (like sign language). Signs are flashed to gang members or to rival gangs. These signs say we are number one, or Power. They also have signs to show victory and a primo sign after a fight or gang war. Signs can represent gang names. Some examples are Mafia Crips, Athens Park Boys, or the Underground crip. Signs are shown below. While gangs grow and get more powerful, what is being done? City police departments play a big role in stopping violence and drugs. The most popular program for school aged children is the D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education). D.A.R.E. teaches kids that violence and drugs are not a good way of life. This program takes place in grades 4-8. In the Phoenix Police Department they support the G.R.E.A.T. Program. It teaches children avoidance of drugs and gangs. ItShow MoreRelatedThe Violence Of Gangs And Gangs1377 Words   |  6 PagesGangs have become one of the nation’s fastest growing problems within recent history. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation about 33,000 violent street gangs, motorcycle gangs, and prison gangs with about 2.4 million members are criminally active in the U.S. today. They use violence to control neighborhoods and boost their illegal moneymaking activities, which include but are not limited to: robbery, drug and gun trafficking, fraud, extortion, and prostitute rings. With as much researchRead MoreGangs: Crime and Gang Violence1549 Words   |  7 PagesGangs Gangs are a violent reality that people have to deal with in today s cities. What has made these groups come about? Why do kids feel that being in a gang is both an acceptable and prestigious way to live? The long range answer to these questions can only be speculated upon, but in the short term the answers are much easier to find. On the surface, gangs are a direct result of human beings personal wants and peer pressure. To determine how to effectively end gang violence weRead MoreA Review of Gang Violence1357 Words   |  5 PagesRe: Increased Incidents of Gang Violence within Broward County, Florida The purpose of this paper is to review and verify a recent study by Scott H. 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Tourism Planning And Development Of Sustainable...

TOURISM MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME Semester 3, 2015 3.317 Tourism Policy Planning and Development Relationship between Sustainability Development and Sustainability Tourism Planning Submitted by: Lance N. Peji Topic: Significance of environmental issues in the formulation of a Tourism Plan. Write on the key concepts and issues of sustainable development and show relationships between sustainable development and sustainable tourism planning. Introduction In this paper, it will focus on the key concepts and issues of sustainable development and showing the relationship between the sustainable development and sustainable tourism planning. Not only the concepts and issues will be discuss but the short term needs and goals of sustainable development and who are the most affected. There are a lot of concepts and issues of sustainable development when it comes to social, economic, and most importantly maintaining and protecting the environment. There are many meaning things of sustainability concept to different people. Verisimilitude, the idea of sustainable development increased from numerous environmental change in earlier decennium. But how are we going to develop these issues in order to increase the tourism impacts and sectors for tourism planning to face the future, and why sustainable development is important? The rural areas or small islands are the perfect example since they have a small populations, lack of business establishments that can cause jobShow MoreRelatedEconomic Dimensions And Development Of Sustainable Tourism993 Words   |  4 Pagesthe table we see that the twenty sustainable dimensions has explained 47.5 % of the total variance in the dependent variable of overall development of sustainable tourism in Sundarbans (Adjusted R Square =0. 475). That’s why, the relationship between sustainable dimensions and development of sustainable tourism in Sundarbans is strong. The result of regression reveals that the strength of association between sustainable dimensions and development of sustainable tourism in Sundarbans is 58.1% (R SquareRead MoreInternational Organisations And Development Of Tourism1359 Words   |  6 Pagesin the planning and development of tourism. Using relevant examples of international organisations such as UNWTO and UNESCO, this essay will analyse how these types of organisations contribute towards the planning and development of tourism. By using Gran Canaria, Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia and the UK as case studies, the essay will produce a clear analogy of how international organisations get involved to help plan, develop and preserve tourist destinations in the hope of a more sustainable futureRead MoreTourism Policy And Planning For Tourism899 Words   |  4 PagesPolicy and planning directly related, despite being completely different types of processes, they both confront the same issues, that being the overall future development of a destination. This essay reflects on policy and planning in the tourism industry. Beginning with the purpose of tourism policy, underlining why policy and planning is important, how it is utilized, and finally the benefits to tourism development. Utilizing examples from Kenya, United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Croatia to furtherRead MoreThe Tourism Industry : An Source Of Revenue For Many Countries1226 Words   |  5 PagesThe tourism industry has become an increasingly important source of revenue for many countries. In the global environment concept, the tourism is the main communicator and promotor of the international trade. The expansion of the tourism creates many advantages and also cause some critical issues including social dislocations, Negative impacts on local culture and social structure, disruptive for the ecological and biol ogical diversity. 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Then, in terms of environment, key concerns remain on fishery resource protection and cultivation, without compromise benefits of local residents. InRead MoreSustainable Tourism And Its Practices Within A Hallmark Event960 Words   |  4 Pages TOURISM PAPER LONDON OLYMPICS, 2012 MOHIT PARTAP SINGH CONTENT Summary Overview Introduction Social impact Economic impact Environmental impact Opinion Conclusion Summary: This paper discuses about the sustainable tourism and its practices within a hallmark event. Sustainable tourism is very important because tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing industry and is major source of income of some countries. Tourism industry provide many jobs that help local economy. Olympic

Leading and Managing People Leaderships Trait

Question: Describe about the Leading and Managing People for Leaderships Trait. Answer: Introduction: Leadership can be considered as the skill to influence other people toward a certain path in order to achieve any objectives. While management can be defined as the way to maintain order and uniformity in any operation, the leadership concept is way beyond of these operational activities. Human history has experienced a lot of remarkable leaders who have enlightened as well as nourished the generic understanding of leadership in an remarkable fashion. This article will be focusing on three most significant leaders in the history of humankind in order to identify their leadership traits. The article will assess their leadership styles in terms of leadership ethics, evolution of their leadership, multicultural leadership traits, and relation with traditional leadership theories as well as psychology of their leadership. It will also attempt to identify and assess their communication skills in order to understand its impact on leadership practices. Leadership style of Martin Luther Leadership ethics: Leadership ethics states that a leader is directed by respect for ethical beliefs and values along with dignity and rights of others. This leadership style is immensely related to trust, consideration, fairness, honesty and charisma (Landis et al. 2014). Martin Luther always valued and respected the views and goals of his people and never forced them to follow something that is not related to their life. He always asked his followers to never follow wrongful paths in order to gain their rightful place. He clearly mentioned that people must not look to fulfil their thirst for freedom and justice by talking the path of hatred and bitterness (Robinson and Topping 2012). He also asked to conduct struggle in a way that can keep dignity and discipline intact. He also advised people not to generate physical violence and should protest in a create way. For his quotes it is clear that he always followed ethics and values of other people while leading way from the front. Revolutionary leadership lessons can also be learned from Martin Luther who states some important hold fast to your word and wanted people to understand to think carefully before they give their word. He was extraordinarily disciplined and was continuously fasting, praying and meditating, subjecting himself to an insensitive ascetic lifestyle. He stated embrace your inner Spartan that helped him to develop a strong self-discipline that served him rest of his life (Reed et al. 2016). Besides, he also cared deeply about discriminating Gods will and never wavered from that eventual purpose. He was powerfully committed to the church; however, soon he understood that church is driven by power and money that changed his vision. As a result, he changed the whole world as he knew it. Martin Luther was determined in his detection and even refused the Pope. He took the decision to think freely and not to follow anyones authority (Bruyneel 2014). He decided to assert without defending it. He al so understood that connecting with people is very important and that is why he used humour and metaphor in his writing. Besides, he also decided to use earthy languages so that people can understand what he wants to way which was another revolutionary step taken by him. Martin Luther Kings leadership was mostly transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is known as mutual process of engagement between leaders and followers that helps them to elevate each other to high levels of morality and motivation. Transformational leaders challenge the status quo and motivate his followers to explore new ways of doing things. Martin Luther positively challenged the existing state of isolation and unfairness within the society. He showed a new pathway to democracy, racial justice and brotherhood for all. He backed his new concept by the fuel of urgency of now. According to Miller (2013), transformational leaders also offer supervision and support to his followers and direct acknowledgment of each followers exceptional offerings. Martin Luther took his time to empathize with the great trials and problems, storms of maltreatment and police viciousness of his followers in order to motivate them to continue to work with the belief that unearned distres s is redemptive. He also helped his followers by comforting them with the hope of pending change that their collaboration could effect. As mentioned by Landis et al. (2014), transformation leaders eloquent a clear vision to his followers and help them to experience the same passion and motivation to fulfil their goals. Martin Luther did the same by spiritedly sharing his dream. By doing this he was able to inspire and motivate millions of people. As a result, people started to believe that they can emancipate themselves from whatever shackles are limiting them fort the life they are similarly entitled to. Reed et al. (2016) mentioned that, transformational leaders serve as a role model for their followers who can easily trust and respect the leader without any question. Fifty years passed after his memorable speech and 45 years after his assassination it is true that his physical existence is distant. However, the influence of his leadership still exists. Martin Luther was able to p ersuade others to believe in his dream in order to develop a better future. That is why, it can be said that he was a perfect transformational leader. Dr. Martin Luthers psychology was mostly standing on his leadership skills by which he was able to coherent his dreams into his followers. This characteristics and psychology of him made him made him popular among his followers. He showed extreme courage in the face of danger and threats (Alderman and Inwood 2013). He believed that everyone is vulnerable during civil rights struggle. People who are powerful will oppress the weak that will obviously lead to anger and retaliation. That is why; Martin Luther gathered courage to face the risks and pursued non-violent call to arms. Without showing reluctance he faced threats that were thrown in his way. Another impressive thing about his psychology was encouraging others by telling them cold hard facts and by not hiding reality (Colbert 2013). He revealed through his speech the realities of a situation no matter how painful it may seem. His psychology is his leadership was to have faith in the abilities of his followers. It has been ident ified that not only he always loved to acknowledge people who did something good and contributed to the cause. He has the ability to bring the best from his followers by providing them with proper assistance. His psychology also includes the idea of doing something completely different with the help of evolution and innovation. Because of his strong philosophy he was able to gain success by shaking up the popular culture of the time (Jackson 2013). This clearly states that Martin Luther had a strong psychology and intend by which he was able to transfer a message to the status quo in the society by saying that the people are not going to follow the traditional rules and regulations that are not set to humiliate them. His psychology was revolutionary and with the help of transformational leadership he was able to make a change in the society. Leadership styles of Nelson Mandela: Nelson Mandela was one of the most inspiring leaders that mankind has ever met. He presents a symbol of reconciliation, humility, compassion, strengths as well as utmost courage. In other words, Nelson Mandela was not only role model for African people but also the true inspiration for the entire world. Being a royal blood, he was groomed to be a counsel for the regent just like his father. The extended family has been most crucial factor for the formation of his early belief regarding custom, tradition as well as culture of the African people (Pietersen 2015). Nelson Mandela is immensely recognised for his impressive leadership ethical values, which proved to be most imperative for keeping the centre of attention as well as avoiding the violence. As a major characteristic of ethical leadership it is imperative for the leaders to live by the vision that is the core of their leadership. In this context, Nelson Mandela has proved his efficiency and excellence being embody of utmost peace (Clinebell 2014). It has been observed by the extensive study of his leadership models that Nelson Mandela formed his leadership practices on the basis of reconciliation, humility, forgiveness as well as sympathy. It has been observed that despite of having an experience of complete harassment as well as humiliation; Nelson Mandela forgave all of his political opponents. In support of the argument it can be presented that, he has cooperated as well as closely worked with Frederick de Klerk who treated him in the ANC prison (Perks and May 2015). In addition to that, he has been highly popular for his leadership practices such as protecting the vulnerable, assisting and empowering the poor, improving living and working conditions, supplying social services as well as showing symp4athy to the marginalised group4s. It has been identified by numerous scholars that Nelson Mandela represents a wide range of leadership styles. It is always been assumed that his political leadership style has been immensely shaped by the training of the ANC. His political leadership has been always clearly defined along with visionary (Beresford 2014). He believed that in order to manage the population it is necessary for leaders to persuade, negotiate and coerce respectively. In addition to that, it is believed that Nelson Mandela transpired his leadership practices with the aim of transforming Africa into apartheid free nation where every man will be treated as free and equal. It has been observed by the scholars that Mandela has followed Utilitarianism leadership style while fighting against the apartheid. However, it is evident from the extensive analysis that Mandela represented a versatile leadership styles among his practices. These styles are commonly known as charismatic leadership, transformational leaders hip as well as inspirational leadership. The history states that Nelson Mandela was the most influential figurehead in the politics of Africa during the 20th century. Numerous scholars have observed that Nelson Mandela led the African men being most captivating as well as charismatic leader. At the same time, he encouraged his followers to educate themselves in order to higher their values and ideas (Raelin 2015). In other word, it can be effectively noticed that Nelson Mandela attempted to transform the existing superstitious state of his country by raising their awareness. This encouragement towards the transformational activities established his image as a transformational leader. In addition to that, Nelson Mandela also inspired his followers of ANC to perceive the significance of his vision. The values of his appeal effectively assisted the freedom movement in Africa. Moreover, he has been also noted to travel every part of the nation to inspire his fellow citizens to fight against the apartheid as well as racial discr imination. These significant activities effectively indicated that Nelson Mandela has also approached his political movement with inspirational leadership. The widespread study on the Nelson Mandelas leadership styles has been able to identify that he held a true talent in the communication skills. It has been often observed that Nelson Mandela had the ability to effectively anticipate the movement or argument of the opponents at the time of facing challenges and defences. Nelson Mandela even learned the Afrikaans language as well as Afrikaner history, so that he can more relate with his followers. Generally, Nelson Mandela will communicate with his opponent directly based on the challenges so that he can have the advantage in the negotiation and resolve those issues (Daleus 2015). In addition to that, it has been also observed that he was highly popular for effectively coordinating his followers with an impressive communication power. Communication skill has been a true part of his arsenal in terms of explaining the plan of fighting for South Africa and convincing them to act on it. Nelson Mandela exhibited a highly influential practice of multicultural leadership. Majority of the scholars put the name of Nelson Mandela as a reference of multicultural leader. He was the first African president that fought against the racial discrimination he inspired his followers to shun every superstition and welcome every fellow citizen as their brothers in arms irrespective of their backgrounds. In order to understand the fellow citizen better, Nelson Mandela travelled every part of South Africa and received them with utmost respect and importance (Northouse 2014). Being a leader, he always put importance on every followers irrespective of their standard and background. The true essence of Nelson Mandelas leadership was integrity as well as dignity, while the perception of the leadership is considered. Nelson Mandela exclusively integrated his leadership practices on the basis of three different leadership domains. One of the most important of his leadership domains was personal leadership. It displayed a greater ability to persuade followers as well as political opponents with his personal values, deep self-knowledge as well as authenticity (Bolman and Deal 2014). Another major domain that has been identified in his leadership practices is Interpersonal leadership. It mostly entails with understanding the others challenges and emphasizing with their needs. It also focuses on extracting the best effort from every follower. Lastly, strategic leadership is another key part of his leadership psychology. Nelson Mandela has been able to establish the winning strategy with most precise prioritizing and effective action plan. Leadership Styles of Abraham Lincoln: Abraham Lincoln was the most popular president of United States of America as he led the nation through most difficult as well as conflicting time. He was highly popular for his ability to lead the nation to the pathway of success despite of the crumbling situation of the country. In this context, it has been identified that Abraham Lincoln resolved the long list of escalation from the numerous factions of people (Greenstein and Anderson 2015). He also established the most appropriate as well as impressive stand against the slavery. Analyzing the leadership style of Abraham Lincoln it can be effectively identified that Abraham Lincoln fits into the trait theory of leadership (Greenstein 2013). He expressively reflected big five factors such as sociability, integrity, determination, intelligence as well as self-confidence. On the other hand, several scholars has been able to identify the skills approach of his leadership. Abraham Lincoln considered himself as a student throughout his life. He admitted that the study has been able to reshape his perception as well as ability to lead American citizens. The major three skills approaches that have been identified are technical dimension, conceptual dimension as well as human dimension. Abraham Lincoln was highly popular for being most modest people. He has the tendency continuously forgive the mistake of the people (Daft 2014). In addition to that, it has been also identified that Abraham Lincoln was quite competent to prioritize his concerns with an effective capabi lity. In this context, it has been observed in many occasions that he had highly impressive conceptual strategic ability. In addition to that, Abraham Lincoln was also highly focused on the implementing different leadership practices in the different time. These particular traits effectively indicate that Abraham Lincoln also fit into the situational leadership concept. Abraham Lincoln established the true form of multicultural practice in all over the Australia. In addition to that, he respected and welcomed all fellow American as a equal entity (Kennedy 2013). He encouraged all the American people to practice an anti-discriminatory practice across the country. His values and beliefs have founded the current multi-cultural environment of America. He truly believed that every American citizen must have equal rights irrespective of their differences and diverse backgrounds. It has been observed that Abraham Lincoln mostly emphasized on founding the equality in the racial quality of people (Zaccaro 2014). The major two ethical implications that are considered in the American society are New American republic idealism as well as Biblical religion. Although, Abraham Lincoln greatly considered both of the ethical implications with utmost sincerity, he personally trusted on the law and legislation (Goethals and Allison 2014). These particular beliefs eventually shaped his leadership perceptions. He has the supreme trust on the people as well as law of the nation. Abraham Lincoln also emphasized on the public opinion so that the national policies can be meet the requirements of public. As a leader Abraham Lincoln greatly emphasized on the ethics of responsibility through his action. He believed and acted as a continuous serving agent of the American constitution in order to effectively live by his promises. Abraham Lincoln presented a most impressive talent in terms of communication skill in his leadership practices. It is evident that communication skills set the path of the success of leadership (Ellis 2013). Henceforth it is commonly acknowledged by the scholars that communication skills have taken a very crucial part in the success of leadership of Abraham Lincoln. The major strategy undertaken by Abraham Lincoln is developing simple message for communication with common people. He believed it would be effective as the simple message will be easy to receive, share as well as remember for the people. In addition to that, he reflected greater interpersonal skills through his action (Popper 2013). He communicated with the people with utmost patience so that he can properly listen to them and then response. Conclusion: Above article has been able to assess the leadership styles of three most inspiring leaders of humankind sincerely. These leaders are Martin Luther, Nelson Mandela and Abraham Lincoln. The article has been able to identify various aspects of their leadership with a greater efficiency. Moreover, the leadership styled has been analyzed in the light of leadership ethics, evolution of their leadership, multicultural leadership traits, relation with traditional leadership theories as well as psychology of their leadership. This article has been able to identify the major traits that are highly influential for leading as well as managing people towards the utmost success. 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Snapshots of Great Leadership.Academy of Management Learning Education,13(1), pp.139-141. Colbert, S.D., 2013. Black Leadership at the Crossroads: Unfixing Martin Luther King Jr. in Katori Halls The Mountaintop.South Atlantic Quarterly,112(2), pp.261-283. Daft, R.L., 2014.The leadership experience. Cengage Learning. Daleus, P., 2015. Political Leadership: New Perspectives and Approaches.Political Psychology,36(1), pp.133-137. Ellis, L., 2013. Understanding your leadership balance.The Journal for Quality and Participation,35(4), p.4. Goethals, G.R. and Allison, S.T., 2014. Kings and charisma, Lincoln and leadership: An evolutionary perspective. InConceptions of Leadership(pp. 111-124). Palgrave Macmillan US. Greenstein, F.I. and Anderson, D., 2015.Presidents and the Dissolution of the Union. Princeton University Press. Greenstein, F.I., 2013.Presidents and the Dissolution of the Union: Leadership Style from Polk to Lincoln. Princeton University Press. 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